Deep dive: Fundamental forces & field theory — the fastest-moving subsegments to watch

In 2024 alone, private fusion energy companies raised over $1.16 billion in Q1, with forecasts projecting more than $3 billion globally for 2025. Meanwhile, the U.S. Department of Energy allocated $118 million to ten Energy Frontier Research Centers focused on advanced materials and power electronics—technologies whose design principles trace directly back to electromagnetic field theory. CERN's Large Hadron Collider delivered its highest-ever integrated luminosity while reducing energy consumption per data unit by half compared to earlier runs. These developments signal that the abstract equations governing fundamental forces—electromagnetism, gravity, the strong and weak nuclear forces—are no longer confined to chalkboards. They are now driving trillion-dollar sustainability transitions, from fusion reactors to ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors that will define the efficiency of tomorrow's grids, vehicles, and industrial systems.

Why It Matters

The physics of decarbonisation is field theory in disguise

Every renewable energy technology—wind turbines, solar cells, electric vehicles, hydrogen electrolysers—operates according to principles derived from classical and quantum field theory. Maxwell's equations govern how generators convert mechanical rotation into electrical current. The Schrödinger equation describes how electrons behave in photovoltaic junctions. The Dirac equation underpins the behaviour of charge carriers in next-generation semiconductors. Understanding these foundations is not academic; it determines which materials can achieve higher efficiencies, which device architectures minimise losses, and which manufacturing processes scale cost-effectively.

Fusion is the ultimate field-theory application

Magnetic confinement fusion—the approach pursued by ITER, Commonwealth Fusion Systems, and Helion Energy—relies on controlling plasma using precisely shaped magnetic fields. The plasma must reach temperatures exceeding 100 million degrees Celsius while remaining confined by superconducting magnets that themselves depend on quantum mechanical phenomena (Cooper pairs, flux quantisation) to carry current without resistance. In January 2025, Helion Energy closed a $425 million Series F round at a valuation of $5.245 billion to build its first commercial fusion plant in Washington State, targeting 50 MW of power by 2028. Commonwealth Fusion Systems has raised over $2 billion and demonstrated 20 Tesla high-temperature superconducting magnets—400,000 times Earth's magnetic field—using REBCO tape technology derived from condensed-matter field theory. These are not speculative bets; they are capital-intensive engineering programmes whose feasibility rests on decades of theoretical physics.

Quantum field theory enables materials discovery at scale

IBM Research published work in 2024 applying quantum algorithms to simulate metal-organic frameworks for direct air capture of CO₂. Google's Willow chip, announced in December 2024, achieved exponential error reduction—a milestone toward fault-tolerant quantum computers capable of simulating molecular interactions that classical computers cannot handle. These simulations rely on quantum field theory to predict how electrons distribute across potential energy surfaces, enabling researchers to screen thousands of candidate materials for batteries, catalysts, and sorbents in silico before synthesising a single gram.

Key Concepts

Electromagnetic field theory and power conversion

Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields propagate and interact with matter. In sustainability applications, these equations govern:

• Electric motors and generators: Every wind turbine and hydroelectric dam converts mechanical energy into electricity through electromagnetic induction. Optimising coil geometry, magnetic core materials, and power electronics improves efficiency.
• Power transmission: Grid losses depend on current density, conductor resistivity, and reactive power. Field-theoretic analysis informs the design of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) lines and superconducting cables.
• Wireless energy transfer: Resonant inductive coupling, used in EV charging pads, exploits near-field electromagnetic behaviour.

Quantum mechanics and semiconductor physics

Quantum field theory—specifically quantum electrodynamics—describes how electrons and photons interact. This framework underpins:

• Photovoltaics: The band-gap structure of silicon, perovskites, and tandem cells determines which photon energies can generate charge carriers. Density functional theory (DFT), a computational method rooted in quantum mechanics, predicts these properties.
• Ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors: Materials like aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) and gallium oxide (Ga₂O₃) operate at higher voltages and temperatures than silicon, enabling more efficient power converters for EVs and grid infrastructure.
• Superconductivity: The BCS theory of superconductivity explains how Cooper pairs form in conventional superconductors. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) used in fusion magnets require extensions involving strong electron correlations.

The four fundamental forces in energy applications

Force	Mediator	Sustainability Application
Electromagnetism	Photon	Solar PV, motors, generators, power grids
Strong nuclear	Gluon	Fusion energy, nuclear fission
Weak nuclear	W/Z bosons	Beta decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators
Gravity	Graviton (hypothetical)	Hydropower, tidal energy, orbital mechanics for satellites

What's Working and What Isn't

What's Working

High-temperature superconducting magnets are scaling. Commonwealth Fusion Systems delivered two commercial HTS magnets in July 2024 to the University of Wisconsin's WHAM fusion experiment—the first commercial sale of turnkey magnet systems capable of 17 Tesla in bore. The company's PIT VIPER cable, published in October 2024 in Superconductor Science and Technology, handles 50,000 amps with integrated fibre-optic quench detection. These engineering milestones demonstrate that superconducting technology derived from field theory is ready for industrial deployment.

Power electronics research is attracting significant public investment. The NREL-led APEX Center received $13.9 million over four years from the DOE to develop ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors using hydride vapour phase epitaxy (HVPE) and novel substrates like scandium diboride. Partners include Morgan State University, Argonne National Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, and Kyma Technologies. The programme aims to overcome the "tyranny of the substrate"—the limitation that semiconductor device performance is constrained by available wafer materials—by co-designing active layers, substrates, and thermal management from first principles.

Quantum computing for materials discovery is advancing. IBM's qubit-ADAPT-VQE algorithm has been applied to simulate CO₂ adsorption in metal-organic frameworks, a critical step for direct air capture. Google's below-threshold error correction, achieved with Willow in December 2024, suggests that fault-tolerant quantum computers capable of realistic materials simulation could arrive by 2029. The quantum computing market reached $854 million in 2024, up 70% from 2023, with national governments investing $10 billion cumulatively by April 2025.

CERN is setting sustainability benchmarks for big physics. The organisation's 2030 environmental objectives include capping electricity consumption at 1.5 TWh/year during Run 4 (2028–2032), cutting direct CO₂-equivalent emissions by 50% versus 2018, and recovering waste heat to supply the town of Ferney-Voltaire (20 GWh/year target). These commitments demonstrate that even the world's largest scientific instruments can pursue efficiency improvements grounded in electromagnetic field optimisation.

What Isn't Working

Fusion timelines continue to slip. Helion Energy originally targeted net electricity from fusion by 2024; the goal has moved to end of 2025, with commercial power delivery now expected by 2028. Commonwealth Fusion Systems' SPARC tokamak, under construction in Massachusetts, targets first plasma in 2026 and net energy (Q > 1) in 2027—timelines that remain ambitious given the complexity of integrating HTS magnets, tritium handling, and plasma control at scale.

Quantum advantage for materials simulation remains years away. Despite Google's Willow milestone, no quantum computer has yet outperformed classical simulations for a chemically relevant problem. Current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices lack the qubit count and error rates needed for the 100+ logical qubits required to simulate real catalysts or battery materials. IBM's roadmap targets 200 logical qubits by 2029 with its Starling processor, but practical sustainability applications will likely lag by another three to five years.

Critical materials constrain scaling. High-temperature superconductors depend on rare-earth elements (yttrium, gadolinium) and copper. Ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors require high-purity aluminium, gallium, and scandium. IRENA's October 2024 critical materials ranking identifies rare-earth elements and platinum-group metals as the most supply-constrained materials for the energy transition. Without diversified supply chains and recycling infrastructure, field-theory-derived technologies face bottlenecks.

Policy and permitting lag technology. Fusion energy sits in a regulatory grey zone. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission issued a decision in 2023 that fusion devices producing less than 1 MW of thermal power need not be licensed as nuclear facilities, but larger plants will face novel licensing frameworks still under development. In Europe, ITER's host-state agreement provides exemptions that will not apply to commercial plants. Uncertainty around licensing timelines adds risk to private investment.

Sector-Specific KPIs

KPI	Definition	Benchmark Range	Data Source
Magnetic field strength (Tesla)	Peak field in superconducting magnets	15–20 T (HTS)	Commonwealth Fusion Systems
Energy confinement time (seconds)	Duration plasma retains energy	>1 s for Q > 1	ITER Project
Capital cost per watt ($/W)	Installed cost of power electronics	$0.05–$0.15 (SiC)	NREL APEX
Quantum error rate	Two-qubit gate fidelity	<0.1% for error correction	Google Quantum AI
CO₂ capture capacity (mol/kg)	Sorbent uptake at 400 ppm CO₂	>1 mol/kg	IBM Research
Grid power loss (%)	Transmission and distribution losses	5–8% (advanced grids)	IEA

Key Players

Established Leaders

• Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS) — MIT spinout with over $2 billion raised. Demonstrated 20 Tesla HTS magnets and signed a 200 MW power purchase agreement with Google for its ARC plant in Virginia.
• CERN — Operates the Large Hadron Collider, achieving record efficiency while pursuing 2030 sustainability targets. ISO 50001 certified for energy management.
• Siemens Energy — Manufactures superconducting cables, generators for offshore wind, and high-efficiency power converters using SiC and GaN devices.
• ITER Organisation — International project building the world's largest tokamak in France. First plasma targeted for 2035, demonstrating 500 MW fusion power (Q = 10).
• IBM Quantum — Developing quantum algorithms for materials discovery, including direct air capture sorbents. Roadmap targets 200 logical qubits by 2029.

Emerging Startups

• Helion Energy — Raised $425 million in January 2025 (Series F) at $5.2 billion valuation. Building 50 MW Orion plant in Washington State with Microsoft PPA for 2028.
• Kyma Technologies — Partner in NREL's APEX Center developing HVPE manufacturing for ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors.
• TAE Technologies — Pursuing hydrogen-boron (aneutronic) fusion with over $1.2 billion raised. Less reliant on tritium than tokamak approaches.
• Quantinuum — Joint venture of Honeywell and Cambridge Quantum. Partnering with BMW and Airbus on fuel cell materials simulation.
• IonQ — Publicly traded quantum computing company. Achieved 12% speed-up on medical device simulation with Ansys in March 2025.

Key Investors & Funders

• Breakthrough Energy Ventures — Bill Gates-led fund backing CFS, Helion, and other fusion and climate-tech ventures.
• U.S. Department of Energy — Allocated $118 million to Energy Frontier Research Centers in 2024, including APEX for power electronics.
• Temasek Holdings — Singapore sovereign wealth fund with significant stakes in CFS and fusion infrastructure.
• Sam Altman — Executive Chairman of Helion Energy; led $500 million Series E in 2021 and participated in 2025 Series F.
• SoftBank Vision Fund 2 — New investor in Helion's January 2025 round, signalling mainstream venture interest in fusion.

Examples

1. Commonwealth Fusion Systems' SPARC Tokamak — CFS is constructing SPARC, a compact tokamak in Devens, Massachusetts, using 18 D-shaped HTS magnets. Each magnet stands 8 feet tall, weighs 10 tons, and contains 165 miles of REBCO tape. The design exploits the fact that magnetic confinement pressure scales as the fourth power of field strength, allowing a machine one-fortieth the volume of ITER to aim for net energy gain. SPARC's target is Q > 2 by 2027, providing a stepping stone to the 400 MW commercial ARC plant planned for Virginia.

2. NREL APEX Center for Power Electronics — Launched in September 2024 with $13.9 million from DOE, APEX brings together seven institutions to develop AlGaN semiconductors capable of operating at temperatures and voltages beyond silicon carbide. The centre's "A on B" co-design methodology integrates active layers, substrates, contacts, and heat sinks from the start, rather than treating them as separate components. Applications include grid-scale inverters, EV fast chargers, and industrial drives—sectors where efficiency gains of even 1–2% translate into gigawatt-hours of saved electricity annually.

3. IBM Research Direct Air Capture Simulation — IBM applied quantum algorithms to model CO₂ binding in metal-organic frameworks, a class of porous materials used in direct air capture. The qubit-ADAPT-VQE approach simulates the potential energy surface of metal centres interacting with CO₂, predicting which structures exhibit high selectivity and capacity. Published results from APS Global Physics Summit 2025 demonstrate that quantum-classical hybrid workflows can accelerate screening of candidate sorbents, reducing the time from years to months for early-stage discovery.

Action Checklist

• Audit your energy conversion systems for field-theoretic optimisation opportunities. Review motor, generator, and power electronics designs against state-of-the-art benchmarks. Identify where ultrawide-bandgap devices or superconducting components could reduce losses.
• Engage with public research programmes. Monitor DOE Energy Frontier Research Centers, EU Horizon Europe calls, and national quantum initiatives for collaborative opportunities and grant funding.
• Assess supply-chain exposure to critical materials. Map rare-earth, gallium, and scandium dependencies. Develop recycling, substitution, or diversification strategies.
• Build quantum-readiness. Evaluate whether molecular simulation is a bottleneck in your materials discovery pipeline. Pilot quantum-classical hybrid workflows with IBM Qiskit or Google Cirq.
• Track regulatory developments for fusion and advanced nuclear. Participate in NRC and IAEA consultations. Factor licensing timelines into investment models.
• Partner with emerging players. Identify startups (e.g., Helion, Kyma, Quantinuum) whose technologies align with your decarbonisation roadmap. Consider strategic equity stakes or offtake agreements.

FAQ

Q: How does field theory actually influence practical sustainability engineering?

A: Field theory provides the mathematical framework that predicts how forces and particles behave. Maxwell's equations tell engineers how to design efficient motors and transformers. Quantum electrodynamics informs semiconductor band-gap engineering for solar cells and power electronics. The strong nuclear force governs fusion reactions. Without these theoretical foundations, engineers would rely on trial-and-error rather than physics-based optimisation.

Q: When will fusion energy become commercially viable?

A: Private companies like Helion and CFS target first commercial plants by 2028–2030. However, achieving sustained net energy (Q > 1) at scale, integrating fuel cycles, and navigating novel licensing frameworks remain challenges. Conservative estimates place widespread commercial fusion in the mid-2030s; optimistic scenarios assume earlier breakthroughs if current demonstrations succeed.

Q: What is the connection between quantum computing and climate technology?

A: Quantum computers can simulate molecular systems that are intractable for classical computers, enabling faster discovery of materials for batteries, catalysts, and carbon capture. IBM's work on direct air capture sorbents and Quantinuum's fuel cell simulations exemplify early applications. However, fault-tolerant quantum computers capable of realistic simulations are expected around 2029, with practical climate-tech impact likely in the early 2030s.

Q: Why are ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors important for sustainability?

A: Materials like AlGaN and gallium oxide can handle higher voltages and temperatures than silicon or even silicon carbide. This enables smaller, more efficient power converters for EVs, grid inverters, and industrial drives. Efficiency gains of 1–2% across millions of devices translate into significant energy savings and emissions reductions.

Q: What are the main barriers to scaling superconducting technologies?

A: Cost and complexity of cryogenic cooling, dependence on rare-earth elements for HTS tape production, and manufacturing yield for long lengths of defect-free conductor. Companies like CFS address cooling through high-temperature operation (20–40 K rather than 4 K) and are investing in domestic supply chains to reduce material risk.

Sources

• Commonwealth Fusion Systems, HTS Magnets Technology Overview (2024). https://cfs.energy/technology/hts-magnets/
• Helion Energy, Series F Announcement (January 2025). https://www.helionenergy.com/articles/helion-announces-425m-series-f-investment-to-scale-commercialized-fusion-power/
• U.S. Department of Energy, FY 2025 Budget Request: High Energy Physics and Fusion Energy Sciences (March 2024).
• NREL, APEX Center Launch Announcement (September 2024). https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/program/2024/innovative-materials-and-scalable-manufacturing-pathways
• CERN, Fourth Environment Report 2023–2024 and 2030 Environmental Objectives. https://home.cern/news/news/cern/cern-sets-new-environmental-objectives-2030
• IBM Research, Exploring Quantum Computing for Materials Discovery in Direct Air Capture Applications (2024). https://research.ibm.com/publications/exploring-quantum-computing-for-materials-discovery-in-direct-air-capture-applications
• Google Quantum AI, Willow Chip Announcement (December 2024). Nature.
• IRENA, Constructing a Ranking of Critical Materials for the Global Energy Transition (October 2024). https://www.irena.org/publications